Methods of Enquiry in Psychology - Class 11 Psychology - Chapter 2 - Notes, NCERT Solutions & Extra Questions
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What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
The goals of scientific enquiry in psychology are:
- Description: Attempting to describe a behaviour or phenomenon as accurately as possible, providing a detailed account to distinguish it from other behaviours.
- Prediction: Understanding the relationship between a particular behaviour and other behaviours, events, or phenomena. This allows forecasting behaviour under certain conditions within a margin of error.
- Explanation: Identifying the causal factors or determinants of behaviour, focusing on understanding what makes behaviour occur and the conditions under which it does not occur. This involves establishing cause-effect relationships.
- Control: Making a behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it by changing its antecedent conditions. This goal is about altering behaviour through psychological treatment or intervention.
- Application: Using the knowledge generated from research to bring about positive changes in people's lives. This includes practical applications like reducing stress through yoga and meditation, or developing new theories leading to further research.
These goals encompass the overall objective of understanding and influencing behaviour through systematic study and application of psychological principles.
Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
Sure! The steps involved in conducting scientific research in psychology involve a systematic procedure to ensure objectivity, accuracy, and reliability. These steps are as follows:
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Conceptualization of a Problem:
- Selecting a Theme or Topic: The researcher begins by selecting a broad theme or topic.
- Narrowing Down Focus: The researcher narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems.
- Developing a Hypothesis: Formulating a tentative answer or hypothesis based on past research, observations, and personal experiences.
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Collection of Data:
- Developing a Research Design: Creating a blueprint of the entire study.
- Decisions on Participants: Determining who will participate (e.g., children, adolescents, patients) in the study.
- Method of Data Collection: Choosing appropriate methods such as observation, experimentation, surveys, etc.
- Tools and Procedures: Selecting appropriate tools (e.g., interview schedules, questionnaires) and deciding on the procedure for data collection.
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Drawing Conclusions:
- Data Analysis: Using statistical procedures and graphical representations to analyze data and verify hypotheses.
- Meaningful Insights: Interpreting the results to understand what the data mean.
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Revising Research Conclusions and Theory:
- Verification or Revision: Confirming or revising the hypothesis or theory based on the results.
- Continuous Process: Research is a continuous process that may lead to further studies and new hypotheses.
These steps ensure that the research is conducted systematically, and the findings are valid and reliable.
Explain the nature of psychological data.
The nature of psychological data includes a variety of information collected from different sources using diverse methods. Here's a breakdown:
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Types of Data:
- Demographic Information: Includes personal details like name, age, gender, education, etc.
- Physical Information: Relates to ecological conditions, housing, size of rooms, etc.
- Physiological Data: Encompasses metrics like height, weight, heart rate, etc.
- Psychological Information: Includes intelligence, personality, emotions, and other mental processes.
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Context-Dependent:
- Contextual Influence: Data are not independent. They are influenced by the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behavior occurs.
- Variation in Behavior: Individuals may behave differently in different settings (e.g., alone vs. in a group, at home vs. at school).
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Types of Measures:
- Categories (e.g., high/low, yes/no)
- Ranks (ordinal data, e.g., first, second)
- Scores (numerical values on scales)
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Qualitative and Quantitative:
- Qualitative Data: Includes verbal reports, observation records, personal diaries, etc.
- Quantitative Data: Includes numerical scores that can be analyzed statistically.
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Inference Required:
- Data do not inherently provide meaning. Meaning is derived through contextual analysis and inference by the researcher.
In summary, psychological data is diverse and context-dependent, encompassing a range of demographic, physical, physiological, and psychological information. It includes both qualitative and quantitative data, requiring contextual interpretation to be meaningful.
How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
Experimental and control groups are essential components of scientific research, particularly in experiments designed to establish cause-effect relationships.
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Experimental Group: This group is exposed to the independent variable manipulation. That is, they receive the treatment or condition that is being tested.
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Control Group: This group does not receive the independent variable manipulation. Instead, it is treated in every other way like the experimental group but serves as a baseline to compare the effects of the manipulation.
Example
Let’s consider the Latane and Darley experiment from your chapter, which investigated how the presence of others affects reporting an emergency:
- Independent Variable: Presence or absence of other persons in the room.
- Dependent Variable: Frequency of reporting the smoke.
Experimental Groups:
- Group 1: Participants were in a room with two other naive individuals (who were actually confederates instructed to do nothing when smoke started filling the room).
- Group 2: Participants were in a room with two other individuals (who were not given any instructions).
Control Group:
- Participants were in a room alone, with no one else present.
Results
- Most (75%) of the students waiting alone reported the smoke.
- Only 38% of the participants in Group 2 (with naive individuals) reported the smoke.
- Only 10% of the participants in Group 1 (with confederates who did nothing) reported the smoke.
By comparing the behavior of participants in the experimental groups to the control group, researchers can pinpoint the effect of the independent variable (presence of other people) on the dependent variable (reporting of smoke).
Important Points:
- Control: The room conditions, the amount of smoke, and other factors were kept constant across all groups.
- Random Assignment: Participants were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups, ensuring no systematic differences between groups other than the independent variable manipulation.
This differentiation ensures that the observed effects can be attributed to the independent variable rather than other extraneous factors.
A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis: The speed of cycling increases in the presence of people.
Variables
- Independent Variable: Presence of people.
- Dependent Variable: Speed of cycling.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
The experimental method, widely used in psychology to establish cause-effect relationships between variables, has both strengths and weaknesses.
Strengths
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Control Over Variables: The experimental method allows high control over the variables. By manipulating the independent variable and controlling extraneous variables, researchers can pinpoint the effects on the dependent variable. This precision is fundamental for establishing causality.
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Replication and Reliability: Due to this controlled environment, experiments can be easily replicated to verify findings, ensuring reliability.
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Cause-Effect Relationships: One of the primary strengths is its ability to determine causal relationships between variables. For example, in a laboratory setting, researchers can isolate specific factors to determine their impact on behavior.
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Precision and Objectivity: The use of standardized procedures in experiments enhances precision and objectivity in results, reducing biases influenced by the researchers' personal beliefs.
Weaknesses
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Low External Validity: Controlled laboratory environments often do not reflect real-world settings, leading to low external validity. The results may not be generalizable to other settings or populations.
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Ethical Constraints: Not all psychological variables can be ethically manipulated. For instance, researchers cannot create harmful conditions (e.g., inducing trauma) just to study their effects, thus limiting the scope of experimentation.
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Artificial Situations: The controlled nature of laboratory experiments may create artificial situations that do not accurately depict everyday behaviors, reducing the ecological validity of the findings.
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Complexity of Human Behavior: Human behavior is influenced by a multitude of factors, many of which are difficult to control in an experimental setting. This complexity can make it challenging to isolate the effects of the independent variable.
In conclusion, while the experimental method is powerful for discerning causal relationships through controlled manipulation and replication, its applications are limited by potential ethical concerns, artificial settings, and issues related to generalizability.
The key is to balance its use with other methods to achieve a broader understanding of psychological phenomena.
Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children's play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
Dr. Krishnan's approach involves the naturalistic observation method of research. Here is an overview of the process along with its merits and demerits:
Process of Naturalistic Observation
- Selection: Dr. Krishnan will select specific behaviours or phenomena of interest (e.g., types of play, interactions among children) to observe.
- Recording: He will record the observations systematically, using methods like note-taking, tally marks, video recordings, etc., without interfering with the children's natural behaviour.
- Analysis: After collecting the observations, Dr. Krishnan will analyze the data to derive meaningful conclusions regarding the children's play behaviour.
Merits
- High Ecological Validity: Observations are made in a real-life setting, providing data that reflects true behaviour.
- Rich Descriptive Data: Offers detailed insights into the behaviour and context, contributing to a deeper understanding of the phenomena.
- Spontaneity: Captures spontaneous actions and interactions, which might be different if the subjects knew they were being observed in a controlled environment.
- Foundation for Hypotheses: Can serve as a preliminary step for generating hypotheses that can be tested with other research methods.
Demerits
- Lack of Control: The researcher has no control over extraneous variables, making it difficult to establish causal relationships.
- Observer Bias: The observer's expectations and beliefs can influence what is recorded and how it is interpreted.
- Time-Consuming: This method can be labor-intensive and time-consuming, as it may take a long period to capture the necessary data.
- Hawthorne Effect: The behaviour of subjects may change simply because they know they are being observed, even in a natural setting.
In summary, naturalistic observation allows researchers to study behaviours in their natural environments, providing rich, ecologically valid data, but it also has significant limitations such as lack of control over variables and potential for observer bias.
Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?
Examples of Situations Where Survey Method Can Be Used:
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Studying the Attitude of Students Towards Online Learning:
- Example: A researcher wants to understand how students feel about online learning platforms post the COVID-19 pandemic. By distributing a questionnaire with questions about their experiences, challenges, and benefits, the researcher can gather comprehensive data on students' attitudes.
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Understanding Public Opinion on Environmental Policies:
- Example: Government agencies or NGOs might be interested in public opinion regarding new environmental policies. By conducting a survey via personal interviews or mailed questionnaires, they can gauge public support, awareness, and suggestions for improvement.
Limitations of the Survey Method:
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Inaccurate Information:
- People may give inaccurate information due to memory lapses, misunderstanding the questions, or not wanting to share true opinions. This can lead to unreliable data.
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Response Bias:
- Respondents might offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear (social desirability bias) or may not cooperate fully, leading to superficial or biased answers. This can distort the actual findings of the survey.
Summary:
- Surveys are efficient for collecting data on attitudes, opinions, and social facts.
- However, they are limited by accuracy and potential bias in responses.
Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
An interview and a questionnaire are both methods used to collect data, but they have key differences:
Interview
- Format: Conducted in a face-to-face setting or sometimes over the phone, where an interviewer asks questions to the respondent.
- Flexibility: Provides flexibility in terms of question phrasing and order. The interviewer can probe further based on responses.
- Types: Can be structured (with a set list of questions) or unstructured (more open-ended and conversational).
- Nature of Data: Can obtain in-depth information and emotional responses.
- Interaction: Involves direct interaction between the interviewer and the respondent.
- Time: Generally time-consuming as it takes longer to gather data from each participant.
Questionnaire
- Format: A written set of questions that the respondent fills out, either on paper or electronically.
- Flexibility: Less flexible compared to interviews. Questions are fixed and follow a specific order.
- Types: Can include open-ended questions (allowing free-form responses) or closed-ended questions (multiple choice, rating scales).
- Nature of Data: Generally more structured data; useful for quantitative analysis.
- Interaction: No direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent while filling out the questionnaire.
- Time: Can be distributed to many people at once, making data collection faster and more efficient.
In summary, interviews allow for more depth and adaptability in questions but are more time-consuming, whereas questionnaires enable quicker and more standardized data collection but offer less flexibility in responses.
Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
In the context of psychological testing, a standardised test is characterised by the following features:
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Objectivity: This implies that if two or more researchers administer the test to the same group of individuals under identical conditions, they would obtain similar results. The questions and instructions should be worded in such a manner that they communicate the same meaning to different respondents.
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Standardised Procedures: The test must have a standardised procedure for administering and scoring, ensuring that environmental conditions, time limits, and modes of administration (individual or group) are consistent across different administrations of the test.
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Reliability: This refers to the consistency of the test scores. Reliable tests yield similar results on repeated administrations under the same conditions. This can be measured using methods like test-retest reliability and split-half reliability.
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Validity: This indicates whether the test measures what it is intended to measure. A valid test accurately assesses the particular trait or characteristic it claims to assess.
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Norms: Standardised tests should have norms derived from testing a large, representative sample. These norms provide a basis for comparing an individual’s score with others in the same population, which helps in interpreting the results meaningfully.
These characteristics ensure that the results of a standardised test are consistent, accurate, and meaningful, providing a reliable basis for comparison across different individuals and groups.
Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
Psychological enquiry faces several limitations which impede the accuracy and generalizability of findings. Here are the key limitations:
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Lack of True Zero Point: Unlike physical sciences, psychological measurements do not start from an absolute zero. For instance, there is no concept of zero intelligence or zero motivation; hence, the scores obtained are relative rather than absolute.
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Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tools are developed based on the context in which they are used. For example, a test designed for urban students might not be suitable for tribal children due to contextual differences. A test created in one culture (like in Western countries) might not be fully applicable in another culture without proper adaptation.
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Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Qualitative data often involve subjective interpretation by the researcher and participant. This subjectivity can lead to varied interpretations, introducing bias. It's recommended to involve multiple investigators and discuss observations to achieve consensus and increase validity.
Here's a brief summary highlighting the key points:
- Lack of True Zero Point: Psychological measurements do not have an absolute zero.
- Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Tools need contextual adaptation for accurate application.
- Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Interpretation involves subjectivity, which can vary.
Understanding these limitations is crucial for interpreting research findings with caution.
What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?
In conducting a psychological enquiry, a psychologist needs to follow several ethical guidelines to ensure respect for individuals and the integrity of the research. These guidelines include:
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Voluntary Participation: Participants should have the freedom to decide whether or not to engage in the study without any coercion or undue inducement. They should also have the right to withdraw from the study at any point without facing any penalty.
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Informed Consent: Participants must be given comprehensive information about what the study involves before they agree to take part. This includes understanding the nature of the research, what they will be required to do, and any potential risks involved.
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Debriefing: After the study, participants should be given a full debrief to explain the research, especially if deception was used. This ensures they leave the study in the same mental and physical state as when they entered, and helps alleviate any possible negative effects.
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Sharing the Results of the Study: Researchers have an obligation to share the findings of the study with the participants. This respects the participants' involvement and can provide additional insights or feedback for the researcher.
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Confidentiality of Data Source: The privacy of the participants must be protected at all times. Personal information should be kept confidential and only used for research purposes. This can involve anonymizing data or using codes instead of names in data recordings.
These ethical principles aim to protect participants from harm, ensure their dignity and privacy, and promote trust in psychological research.
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Exploring the Various Methods of Enquiry in Psychology for Class 11 Students
Understanding psychology involves more than just knowing theories and principles; it necessitates grasping the methods through which psychological knowledge is acquired. For Class 11 Psychology students, familiarising themselves with these methods is key to appreciating how psychologists study human behaviour, experiences, and mental processes.
Introduction to Methods of Enquiry in Psychology for Class 11
Understanding the Goals of Psychological Enquiry
Psychological enquiry has several goals: description, prediction, explanation, control, and the application of knowledge to enhance lives. Understanding these goals provides the foundation for the various methods used in psychological research.
Nature of Psychological Data
Psychologists collect diverse data, including demographic, physical, physiological, and psychological information. This variety ensures a holistic understanding of the phenomena under study.
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Conceptualising a Problem
The research process begins with identifying a problem or theme for study. This step involves narrowing the focus and developing specific research questions or hypotheses.
Collecting Data
Data collection entails designing the research, selecting participants, choosing data collection methods and tools, and deciding on data collection procedures.
Drawing Conclusions
Analysis of collected data using statistical procedures helps verify hypotheses and draw conclusions.
Revising Research Conclusions
Based on the analysis, researchers may confirm, revise, or develop new hypotheses for further testing.
Important Methods in Psychology
Observational Method
Observation is a powerful tool for describing behaviour. There are two main types:
- Naturalistic Observation: Conducted in real-life settings without manipulation.
- Controlled Observation: Conducted in a controlled environment where certain variables are manipulated.
Experimental Method
Experiments aim to establish cause-effect relationships by manipulating variables in a controlled setting. Key elements include independent and dependent variables along with experimental and control groups.
graph TD
A[Independent Variable] --> B[Manipulation]
B --> C[Dependent Variable]
C --> D[Measured Effect]
Correlational Research
This method investigates relationships between two variables to determine if they covary. Correlation coefficients can be positive, negative, or zero, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.
Survey Research
Surveys gather data from large populations through techniques like personal interviews, questionnaires, and telephone surveys.
Psychological Testing
Psychological tests are standardised tools used to measure various human attributes such as intelligence, personality, and aptitude. These tests must be reliable and valid to be effective.
Case Study Method
Case studies involve an in-depth analysis of a particular case, providing rich, detailed information. Researchers use interviews, observations, and tests to gather comprehensive data.
Methods of Analysing Data
Quantitative Method
Quantitative analysis involves numerical data and statistical procedures to draw conclusions. Techniques include measures of central tendency, variability, and correlation coefficients.
Qualitative Method
Qualitative analysis focuses on understanding the complexity of human experiences through narrative analysis and content analysis, often involving descriptive, non-numerical data.
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
Psychological enquiry has certain limitations, including the lack of a true zero point in measurements and the subjective nature of qualitative data interpretation. Understanding these limitations is crucial for accurate research.
Ethical Issues in Psychological Research
Voluntary Participation
Participants should have the freedom to choose whether to participate in the study.
Informed Consent
Participants must be informed about the study's nature and potential impacts before it begins.
Debriefing
After the study, participants must be provided with complete information to ensure they leave in the same mental and physical state as when they entered.
Sharing Results
Researchers are obliged to share the study results with participants, meeting their expectations and fostering transparency.
Confidentiality of Data
Participants' privacy must be safeguarded by keeping their information confidential and using it solely for research purposes.
flowchart TB
A[Ethical Issues in Psychological Research]
A --> B[Voluntary Participation]
A --> C[Informed Consent]
A --> D[Debriefing]
A --> E[Sharing Results]
A --> F[Confidentiality of Data]
Understanding these various methods of enquiry in psychology provides Class 11 students with a comprehensive view of how psychological research is conducted. This foundational knowledge is essential for appreciating the scientific and methodological basis of psychology and applying it in real-world contexts.
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